The first farmers settled in the Fertile Crescent along the Euphrates and Tigris river valleys (an area covered by present day Iraq, Syria and Azerbaijan) around 10,000 B.C. The favorable climate and topography of this region permitted the Cro-Magnons and their progeny to experiment in agriculture by growing staple crops like wheat and barley, which they used to make bread, an essential part of the diet of every early civilization. These agriculture based communities represented a fundamental shift in the mindset of early humans. Where in the past early humans had followed their food as hunter gatherers, now, they discovered a means to sustain themselves by manipulating the natural resources and animal life in their immediate environment. Soon semi-permanent communities evolved from these farming communities, bringing with them more innovations, including the domestication of animals and irrigation techniques which assisted them in their cultivation of plants for crops. 
The innovations that followed resulted in the design improvements of simple tools to assist the early farmers in clearing their land more effectively and in building more permanent dwellings. These developments eliminated the need for the early humans to continue their hunter-gatherer lifestyle and gradually villages sprang up around the farming communities along the Fertile Crescent. Later, other ancient civilizations in the fertile regions of China, northwest India, Iran, Egypt, southern Europe and Mexico would follow similar agricultural development patterns.
The Invention of Irrigation: Early farming communities needed to find a way to bring water to their crops. And the invention of irrigation systems, reservoirs of water connected to farm lands via sluiceways and channels enabled early farmers to divert water from its source for their farming purposes. With these irrigation systems, the farmers could make land lying far from a natural water source fertile. Irrigation and drainage systems also permitted early farmers to control annual flood water to their advantage, thus contributing to a more stable and secure way of life. 
Superheroes are a common part of the world’s popular culture from comic books and movies to television shows and all forms of merchandise. There are conventions devoted to the phenomenon and the genre of superheroes shows no signs of slowing down in the foreseeable future. However, a look at the history of superheroes shows that they have been a big part of our culture and consciousness for decades. They have been recreated time and again as society and events shaped the world around us. For example, during World War II heroes such as Captain America, Superman and Captain Marvel were routinely featured triumphing over the evil Axis powers and were an affordable way to keep the spirit of patriotism going even during difficult times.
During the 1950s superhero comics almost ceased to exist due to social backlash after medical doctor and psychiatrist Dr. Frederick Wertham wrote the book ‘Seduction of the Innocent’ in which he blamed comic books for juvenile delinquency and sexual perversion. The book sponsored a senatorial investigation and led to comic books regulating themselves and creating a code that they had to follow to be published.
The 1960s led to the rebirth of the superhero genre and many of the most popular characters came out of this decade including the Fantastic Four, Spider-Man, the X-men, and the Justice League of America. The Civil Rights movement had an impact on comics with the creation of African-American heroes such as Blade, the Black Panther, Luke Cage, and the Falcon to name a few.
From the 1980s until the present time, superheroes have gotten darker and grittier with a more real world feel to them. Batman: The Dark Knight, the Watchmen, Daredevil, and Wolverine are examples of this trend. Superhero movies have become extremely popular with characters such as Spider-Man, the X-men, Iron Man, Hulk, Batman, etc. leading the box office charge. Television shows such as Heroes and Smallville demonstrate the mass appeal and influence of the superhero genre on our society.
Tags: 1960s, 1980s, batman, captain america, civil rights movement, comic book, dark knight, Dr. Frederick Wertham, folklore, hero, mythology, second world war, superhero, superhero history, superman, world war 2
By the middle of the twelfth century, heraldry and the use of symbols designating one’s affiliations were widespread. Suits of armor were made entirely in the colors of the knight’s blazon (the description of the coat of arms) or the knight’s lady’s blazon. Furthermore, the significance of the colors and emblems one wore were such that relationships could be demarcated through them. The livery (non-military uniform or costume detailed with a particular emblem) worn by a person would tell a viewer that he/she was a servant, follower, or ally of the person who had gifted the uniform or piece of costume. ‘Livery’ came from the French word ‘livree’ or ‘delivered’ and the types of livery passed on to one’s servants and allies would have elements of the giver’s heraldry, often dipslayed on metal or embroidered badges.
One often wonders where the traditions of our most beloved holidays actually originate. The American holiday of Halloween has come a long way in two thousand years with a mixture of both ancient and modern rituals playing a large role in this annual celebration. Bobbing for apples and wearing terrifying masks come to us from the murky pagan past but pumpkin pie contests and parties are more recent additions to this, the spookiest of seasonal festivals.
Samhain is the name of a Celtic druid festival celebrated before the onset of Christianity in Ireland. It represented the time after the gathering of the harvest and before the onset of winter. Samhain was the beginning of a new agricultural year for the Celts and during this time, the veil between the realms of the living and the dead were temporarily lifted. All those who had died in the last year were free to leave their graves and visit their relatives. With the good, so came the bad and the Celts made sacrifices, performed magical rituals and created defenses against a predicted onslaught of ill maligned ghosts and ghouls.
After the Roman Empire came to the British Isles in 43 BCE, the practice of Samhain took on a new form and now included the worship of the Roman goddess of fruit, Pomona. As the Celtic holiday coincided with the apple harvest in Europe, the two celebrations became co-mingled with bonfires and apple treats and fortune telling games indulged simultaneously.
The concept of trick or treat most probably originates with the English mischief night tradition when the less than savory members of the village used the excuse of Halloween to make trouble for neighbors they felt had slighted them. Covering chimneys so houses filled with smoke was a common trick and anyone questioned would always blame the unexplainable events on the spirits, the goblins or the elves. Tricks were also reserved for those who chose not to make donations to the poor.
The concepts, understandings and rituals surrounding the Halloween tradition continue to change and its popularity is returning to its British roots. For many years, the celebration of Guy Fawkes Night on November 5 overshadowed British traditions of Halloween. Yet the export of American culture back over the pond has renewed English and Irish ties to their pagan and early church roots. All Hallows Eve is finally retuning home. And the American additions of candy, pumpkins and parties are going along for the ride.
Embellishment in clothing and costume in many ways reached a zenith in the Europe of the 15th and 16th centuries when outfits were characterized by a longer-style garment for formal occasions and a shorter, more tailored style for daily wear. The style of the shorter garments, which in men’s clothing was comprised of the doublet (short, fitted button-down top) and the trunk hose (covering the lower body to mid-thigh), was also largely influenced by innovations in armor. The longer style garment, a holdover from Roman styles in drapery, was an elegant alternative and retained its place for ceremonial occasions.
The courtly life and the romantic notions linked to the world of knights-errant and ladies of the court created an arena for lavish details in costume, such as dagged (shaped, rounded) edges to garments, long pointed tips to sleeves that would sometimes be so long as to drag on the ground, jeweled knights’ helmets, scalloped waists, fur-trimmed gowns, lace collars, cushioned and creased sleeves, embellished sashes, densely embroidered patterns on silk as well as highly ornamented engravings on armor that echoed patterns on cloth. The extravagance was also translated to etching patterns on armor: etchings made on armor plates were sometimes so intricate as to reflect patterns recognizable from damask, or the rich patterning of exotic silks, and would also in some cases reflect flourishes in form such as slashed sleeves. It was a trend during the 15th and 16th centuries to ‘slash’ the sleeves of the doublet, which served to echo wounds in battle, and allow an under layer of cloth to protrude through the outer layer.
