Beginning in the 12th century, Arab physicians began to prescribe their patients a most unorthodox remedy: the ground remains of mummies procured from Egyptian tombs.
Mummy powder proved so profitable that soon after its introduction, Egyptian tombs were ransacked not only for the riches they might contain, but also for bodies that might be processed into the expensive folk medicine. It wasn’t long before the practice of applying mummy powder was incorporated into medieval Europe’s catalog of dubious medical practices. By the 16th century, the product had become so commonplace in both Europe and the Middle East that the once seemingly endless supply of authentic, mummified Egyptian cadavers quite literally dried up.
Mummy powder, however, was not the only everyday use of the Egyptian dead that arose before the dawn of modern archaeological preservation. In the 16th and 17th centuries, pulverized mummy was the key ingredient in a popular shade of brown artist’s pigment, and preserved human and animal remains of Egyptian origin were used in the production of this “mummy brown” paint until the early 20th century.
Whether this statement was merely jest on the part of the American literary icon, well known for his sense of humor, has been the subject of debate ever since it was published. What is known, however, is that the supply of authentic Egyptian corpses by the beginning of the 1800s was so small only that upper crust Europeans could afford to purchase one whole. In the wake of Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt, it became vogue amongst the aristocracy to hold “unwrapping parties,” where carefully preserved corpses would be haphazardly stripped of their bandages, so that revelers could gaze upon the millennia-old face concealed beneath them. Small burial ornaments concealed in the linens would then be dispensed to partygoers as souvenirs, while exposure to air caused the delicate bodies to crumble into dust, never to be seen again.
Annie Oakley died on November 3, 1924 from pernicious anemia. Her life is a testament to the strength and determination of American frontierswomen. Skilled with weapons and equal to many of her male counterparts, Annie Oakley remains an integral part of western history.
Born in Ohio on August 13, 1860, Annie’s given name was Phoebe Ann Oakley Mozee. She had a total of seven siblings and came from a childhood of economic hardship and parental death. She never received any sort of a formal education. When her mother lost her second husband, Annie was put into care for a while but suffered abuse and was returned to her mother who married for a third time. Oakley’s childhood made her tough and resilient and perhaps a bit of a loner.
Oakley was an expert marksman from a very early age and started practicing her shooting skills at the tender age of 9. At the age of 16, she was already receiving money for her shooting games and entered her first professional competition against her husband to be Frank Butler (1850-1926). They married in 1876.
In the early 1880s, Oakley traveled with her husband on the Vaudeville circuit, performing shooting feats and contests for a paying audience. They went across the country together where Oakley got to meet many famous people of the day, including Sitting Bull who she became friends with. Sitting Bull gave Annie Oakley the nickname of “Little Sure Shot.” Her skills as a marksmen were never questioned by man or woman, rich or poor, townsfolk or royal. Her place in history was quickly secured.
It was in 1885 that the star crossed (or rifle crossed) couple joined the famous Buffalo Bill Wild West Show. Butler stepped aside so that his wife could become the female star of the Wild West show. They traveled all over Europe and even performed for Queen Victoria. Oakley won numerous medals and awards for her skills. They stayed with the show for 16 years. Even in her own time, Oakley was considered a role model for other women from both the States and the rest of the world.
Despite offering to lead a female regimen in World War I, Oakley ended up spending her time with the Red Cross during the war and spending time for her famous show dog, Dave. A comeback was planned for the early 1920s but a car accident put both Butlers out of commission for some time.
Oakley and Butler stayed together until the very end passing away within three weeks of each other in November of 1926. Their story is truly endearing and inspirational and Annie Oakley will forever be remembered as America’s cowgirl. Her role in the perception of women and creating the wild stories of the American west will endure long after the last remnants of western boomtowns crumble and disappear.
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Like other aspects of government and social organization, the military defense of the Inca Empire was well ordered and highly planned. The majority of evidence of warfare comes from the archaeological record which shows the high level of preparation. 
Many of these warehouses were only accessible via a window which could be reached by constructing stones steps leading up the wall. The second purpose of the fortresses was to control and dominate their conquered subjects. The provincial town of Paramongo was naturally defended by its topographical position but still a fortress was constructed. Other results included a store of raw material for the manufacture of public goods, supplies to relieve famine stricken or areas of crop failure and a means of providing luxury items for the ruling classes.
The all important expansion of the Inca empire was based around their standing armies, forced tributary status and their extensive communication systems. While the majority of taxpayers were agriculturalists, the sheer number of male workers to draw upon enabled the Incas to maintain a standing army, so the empire was ready to respond instantaneously to any threat. This army, of course, was also able to remain continually in service because of the tribute system and warehouses which provided food for the soldiers all year round.
The Inca army, which grew in size with the expansion of the empire, was mainly made up of armed foot soldiers practiced in the art of hand-to-hand combat. Their main weapon was the club which required two hands to operate but was capable of inflicting fatal head wounds. On the other hand, with the accumulation of the eastern jungle people, the bow and arrow became more common. This weapon could be used to kill enemy troops from a short distance.
The Inca empire reached its peak in the 1500s, after emerging in under a century. From 1470 they ruled from their capital Cuzco, a vast area that reached the practicable limits of its expansion with the Amazonian rainforest to the east and the Andes to the south.
At the head of the organization was the royal family ruled by the Emperor, or Child of the Sun. The Incas believed that their royal family were direct descents from the Sun god through their ancestor Manco Capac, and therefore they ruled with divine right. Each member of the royal family was known by their title, used solely by the Inca royal family. These included Auqui for an unmarried son of the Emperor and Inca for a married son. It was necessary to make this strict legal hierarchical system to define the next heir to the throne; the Emperor’s wives could number into the hundreds and illegitimate sons by his concubines were not eligible for the succession.
Administration of the empire revolved around the taxpayers, or ‘commoners’. This social group made up the majority of the Inca population and were mainly agriculturalists. These subjects were expected to pay their taxes as energy or labour. The tight social categories were rigorously enforced because they dictated who was liable to pay tribute.
On the other hand, the agriculturists retained enough land to feed themselves but were close to government and the religious owned land to work on also. When it was sowing or harvesting time all other tasks, but urgent government business such as warfare, were postponed so the taxpayers could focus on the land.
There are many characters in our society we are familiar with whether from books and comic books or television and movies. One of the characters we know from a variety of media is Conan the Barbarian but little is known about how he came into being. Conan is a character from the sword and sorcery genre created by a writer from Texas named Robert E. Howard in 1932. Howard’s Conan stories began as a series of articles submitted to the fantasy magazine Weird Tales. Howard’s influences ranged from the Greek writer Plutarch to the mythology works of Thomas Bulfinch. Howard wrote many more Conan stories over the next 4 year completing 21 stories. 
Conan books have been written and published by various different authors over the last 50 years, many of them trying to imitate the style of Robert E. Howard. The original Conan stories written by Howard were allowed to go out of print and were unavailable in their original form. In 2003 the original Howard stories were collected and printed by British Publisher Wandering Star and were republished in the U.S. by Ballantine. These volumes included Howard’s original stories but expanded on them by offering his notes and letters on the setting and for the world of Conan which provided a more complete look at the history of Howard’s ideas and the genesis of the character. Regardless of the history of the character the books, comic books, and the movies of the 80s have kept the Conan character alive and well in the imagination of society since he was first put into print in the 1930s by Robert E. Howard. 
