Queen Elizabeth I is considered by many to be one of Britain’s greatest leaders. Her strength and resolve in the face of overwhelming odds, as the Spanish fleet entered waters with the threat of land invasion, remains one of the Empire’s most enduring stories. The attack of the Spanish Armada of 1588 began in mid May and was the culmination of conflicts between Britain and Spain.

Catholic Spain was led by King Philip II who had at one time been married to Mary, the sister of Queen Elizabeth, with the hopes of making England a country of Catholicism. In the heat of the Reformation, Elizabeth chose Protestantism for her country which better suited her socialistic leanings and belief in the ability of her subjects to think for themselves. The contention between the former allies grew.

The rebellion against the Roman Catholic faith was widespread with rioting and destruction of popish artifacts taking place in Europe’s major cities. King Phillip was Dutch but leaned towards his Spanish possessions which had only increased after the abdication of Charles V and the break up of the Hapsburgs territories. It was a tumultuous time across Europe as old and new ideas clashed, often violently. When Philip sent troops to the Netherlands to quash the rebellion, he only created more resentment and confused loyalties.

Elizabeth had funded the rebellion for some time but didn’t want direct open conflict with Spain. But problems with the Dutch had split the nation. Elizabeth sent troops to prevent a total collapse of the area. By 1586, small run ins, pirateering and growing hostilities resulted in both England and Spain building up their navies.

The 16th century was a time of discovery and expedition, especially by the Spanish and English. The Spanish fleet, or armada, was financed totally by the gold “retrieved” during visits to the Americas but the choice of vessel although new was no match for what would become the Royal Navy. Britain was an island country and therefore of a seafaring mind. Their ships were great and, coupled with the assistance of their Dutch allies, the armada could only win by careful planning and a lack of confidence by the British. Fortunately for history and England they had neither.

The Spanish set sail for Britain in May of 1588 accompanied by their German and French allies. The armada consisted of approximately 130 ships and they were making straight for British waters with the plan to invade the country. But the Spanish fleet was a miss match of vessels from cargo ships to small boats and many never made it to English waters. After rough weather and the loss of several ships, the Spanish went to harbor only to sail again in June. They reached Calais in July where they anchored making ready to attack England.

England’s highest military advisors held counsel with the Queen to determine the best course of action given the circumstances. The British Navy had increased its strength in the previous months and needed now only the rallying cry of a Queen to get them motivated for the fight. It was Elizabeth’s words to her troops that helped spur the British fleet onto victory and have gone down in history as one of the world’s greatest speeches.

“And therefore I am come amongst you at this time, not as for my recreation or sport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live or die amongst you all; to lay down, for my God, and for my kingdom, and for my people, my honor and my blood, even the dust.” –Elizabeth I

Duly inspired by a determined queen, the British attacked. They began by sending eight ships covered with ignited pitch (tar and straw on fire) into the Spanish fleet causing chaos and a number of other fires. Then the guns began to boom. Both sides were heavily armored but the rumored 190 British ships carrying 17,000 men quickly claimed victory. Although Spanish vessels weren’t captured by the British navy, they were forced to flee and hopes of a respite, rendezvous and return attack quickly fell from favor. The British were determined to win and the British Isles remained free of foreign invasion then and to this day.

“I know I have but the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too; and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms.”-Elizabeth I

There never was another great fleet of ships attempting to pull down the crown, nor was there another royal like Elizabeth I. The victory of 1588 did not end Spanish aggression and conflict between the two nations went on for several more years but Phillip did not try his luck again. Today, every British school child is told the story of the Spanish Armada when Britain was tested and not found wanting. And although this once global empire would go on to invade, plunder and colonize the world, that night in July of 1588 will always remain a positive victory.

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By May of 1937, planes, trains and automobiles were an integral part of modern life. Transatlantic communication was well on its way to becoming the global streamlined system it is today. People crossed the world’s oceans quite regularly. There were a few misadventures along the way, the worst of which would take the lives of 35 people in a matter of seconds. The Hindenburg disaster remains one of the most shocking and spellbinding pieces of film footage in media history.

1930s Germany was a prosperous time and place for many. The Nazis held tight control of every aspect of society, creating a false utopia of strong employment, increased civic engagement and cultural exploration. The desire to show all that Germany had to offer after the humiliating defeat of the Great War was a must for Hitler and his followers. None could have anticipated the violent and horrifying events that would overtake the country in just a few short years. In 1937, times were good and innovation frequent.

The invention of an international air bus was the result of the efforts of the Zeppelin Company who would soon be famous for their aircraft carriers. The Hindenburg was the second of two enormous airships manufactured by the company, both giants of lightweight metal and gas cells. The air bus or air ship was constructed in Fredrichshafen, Germany and measured over 135 feet. Taking five years to build, the aircraft was the first transportation to cross the Atlantic by air. There was no passenger basket below the airship; the Hindenburg was a contained structure.

The Hindenburg was named for the former president of the Weimar republic, Paul Von Hindenburg. Considered a national hero, President Hindenburg passed away in 1934, never knowing the grisly outcome of his namesake. It was Hindenburg who appointed Hitler to the position of chancellor; a position that would act as springboard towards his ambitions as fuehrer. Hindenburg is thus associated with two disasters: the rise of Hitler and the downfall of transatlantic airships.

Already in service for a year before disaster struck, the Hindenburg air bus has proved popular among the elite traveler that utilized its services. A library, lounge, cafeteria and promenade made the long slow flight (approximately 60 hours) from German to America’s East coast both pleasurable and relaxing. It would all come to a crashing shocking halt as the giant air bus with its four strong engines came into land at the small airport in Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6th, 1937.

Having thwarted the efforts of an earlier thunderstorm, the Hindenburg was slowly making its way in to land. 200 hundred feet above ground, and just as the first tie line descended, an ominous orange glow became visible. The massive gas filled balloon was about to burst. There were 91 people on board. 33 lost their lives jumping to the ground to avoid the flames. Another two were ravaged by flames.

People on the ground looked on in horror at the sight of flames billowing out of the airship’s fragile structure while people jumped to the ground. Sixty seconds from the sound of the explosion, the Hindenburg was gone, nothing more than ashes and burnt framing. The event was broadcast live on the radio.

The radio broadcast that is most famed by the Hindenburg disaster (with the famously haunting “oh the humanity!” cry from eye witness journalist, Herbert Morrison) was actually the first national coast to coast broadcast in the country. What was meant to be a shining day for the developing media/movie industry became a thunderous marker of what happens when dreams are marred by fate.

After the tragedy of that spring day, the growing popularity with the air bus system rapidly dissipated. No-one wanted to fly in a planed apt to seemingly spontaneous explosion. Theories abound on the cause of the Hindenburg’s combustion, from lighting storms to sabotage, but firm evidence of cause was never found.

The Hindenburg disaster marked the beginning of the end of Germany’s good times, at least for a few years anyway. Two years later, Hitler would invade Poland and the war to end all wars would become a hollow sentiment from a battlefield that paused but never ended. The time after World War I in Europe was a mixed muddle of progress and setbacks as nations recovered from conflict, dep

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The Hindenburg disaster marked the beginning of the end of Germany’s good times, at least for a few years anyway. Two years later, Hitler would invade Poland and the war to end all wars would become a hollow sentiment from a battlefield that paused but never ended. The time after World War I in Europe was a mixed muddle of progress and setbacks as nations recovered from conflict, depression and political upheaval. The Hindenburg Disaster was just one of many incidents that marked the years between the wars.

Many people are not familiar with the American Civil War Battle of Hampton Roads until it is referred to as Monitor vs. Merrimack. It was one of the most important Civil War naval battles because of the development of navies it influenced. The battle was fought during the two days of March 8-9, 1862 in Hampton Roads Virginia which is a place where the Elizabeth and Nansemond Rivers connect to the James River and open into the Chesapeake Bay. The battle was an effort of the Confederacy to break the Union blockade which stopped international trade for the large Virginia cities of Richmond and Norfolk. The battle is important because it was the stage for a new type of ship called the ironclad. The confederate ironclad was the CSS Virginia built using the remains of the scuttled Union ship the USS Merrimack and some support ships and during the first day of battle they were confronted by some wooden-hulled ships of the Union Navy. The CSS Virginia destroyed two ships and threatened a third, the Minnesota, but darkness and low tide stopped the action so the Virginia returned to port to take care of the few wounded sailors and fix the small amount of damage it had sustained.

The Virginia returned on the morning of March 9 to finish the destruction of the Minnesota which had run aground but the ironclad USS Monitor had arrived during the night and was defending the U.S.S. Minnesota.The two ironclads slugged it out for three hours but neither could significantly damage the other and the fight ended in a stalemate so the CSS Virginia returned to her home port for repairs and the USS Monitor returned the defense of the Minnesota. The ships did not battle again and the Union blockade stayed in place but the battle got worldwide attention and had an immediate impact. The premier naval powers of Great Britain and France stopped building wooden hulled ships and started building new warships, the monitor, which was based on the design of the original. A small number of heavy guns installed so they can fire in any direction which was featured on the USS Monitor became standard. These improvements were adopted by navies around the world and changed the course of naval combat forever.

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In the beginning of the Age of Exploration and Discovery, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas and the islands of the Caribbean at the end of the 1400s and introduced the era of colonization in these territories by European powers. Areas in the Americas under Spanish and Portuguese control included most of South and Central America, and large parts of North America, Mexico, and parts of the Caribbean.

The expeditions initially organized for the exploration and the opening of trade routes were followed by expeditions whose main goal centered on the conquest and subjugation of native peoples for access to their regions’ natural resources. The Spaniards were foremost in this expansionist thrust into South and Central America and established a lasting foothold through a growing religious, military, and commercial presence. In Central America, the kingdom of Guatemala (encompassing present-day Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) was initiated under Spanish governance but largely organized and managed by Spanish entrepreneurs who maintained control of the area through their business activities and strengthened their own positions with the profits and influence they earned. The merchant class had the advantage of Spanish political support behind them and exploited production means in the new territories through political and coercive forces.

Provinces in Central America were ruled by a small quantity of governors, mayors or corregidores (magistrates.) Governorships were also military positions and so these were assigned only in the provinces threatened by outside forces. Eventually the position of mayor and corregidor became interchangeable. Towards the end of the 17th century only four governors, eight mayors, six magistrates and six exchequers, governed all of Guatemala’s eighteen provinces.

The strong economic and entrepreneurial aspect of the Spanish presence in Central America took advantage of the already established traditions of production. Spinning, weaving, cotton and cacao cultivation were indigenous traditions and these, supplemented with the larger-scale production of indigo and gold and silver mining fed naturally into the Spanish economic system without disrupting existing societal structures.

However, by the 19th century the mercantile aspect of the colonies, guided by private business interests and property-owners, came to be the greatest threat to the monarchy’s representation in Central America. The magistrates that before had been sponsored by the Spanish crown grew in power to the extent that they no longer needed the king’s auspices and were better able to represent their own interests in the New World than that of their European leadership in the Old World. Inevitably the colonies established in Central America, like those in South America, would rebel and claim independence from Spain.

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