While every aspect of the taxpayers’ life was inspected by the elite classes, they were often allowed relative freedom in religious worship, as long as they complied with the demands put on them by the religious leaders, such as paying tribute. More often than not, the Incas themselves accepted the Provinces’ gods, or superimposed their gods onto the local pantheon. In this way, the integration of new peoples was smoother and more widely accepted. Religion was therefore, not primarily concerned with the spiritual life of individuals, rather, it was organized to gain more practical result which reflected the reality of Inca power. An example of this is the idea of the Emperor ruling with divine right as he was considered to be a descendant of the Sun god. His connection to the gods gave him more power over the people as he controlled not only their secular lives but also their religious lives.
The most important celebration, during which a sacrifice of up to 200 human children were offered to the gods, was during the coronation of a new Emperor. This asserted his power over the people and his connection to the gods straight off, leaving no one in doubt of his divine right to rule. The sacrificial victims were usually about the age of ten and were taken from their families as part of the provinces’ taxation.
Like other aspects of government and social organization, the military defense of the Inca Empire was well ordered and highly planned. The majority of evidence of warfare comes from the archaeological record which shows the high level of preparation.
While the Inca capital city itself, Cuzco, was not surrounded by walls or fortified defenses there were fortresses built near the city which offered a number of advantages. The first advantage was the defense the fortresses gave the city people against any attackers.
These fortresses were designed to shelter the taxpayers and other nobles and provide food to the people for considerable amounts of time when all supply lines were broken. This was achievable because the majority of food warehouses were situated outside towns but within defending reach of the fortresses, There could be up to 500 warehouses in rows along hillsides containing food, clothes, and army stores such as weapons and tools. An example of this system was discovered outside the provincial town of Huanuco.
Many of these warehouses were only accessible via a window which could be reached by constructing stones steps leading up the wall. The second purpose of the fortresses was to control and dominate their conquered subjects. The provincial town of Paramongo was naturally defended by its topographical position but still a fortress was constructed. Other results included a store of raw material for the manufacture of public goods, supplies to relieve famine stricken or areas of crop failure and a means of providing luxury items for the ruling classes.
While the cities themselves were not surrounded by a wall, the royal palaces and Sun god converts were well protected in their own right. The main entrance into the Emperor’s palace considered of two doorways, the first guarded by 2000 soldiers and the second was protected by 100 captains. Many of the homes of the nobility’s were guarded in much the same way, while the converts were guarded by high walls and a single entrance.
The all important expansion of the Inca empire was based around their standing armies, forced tributary status and their extensive communication systems. While the majority of taxpayers were agriculturalists, the sheer number of male workers to draw upon enabled the Incas to maintain a standing army, so the empire was ready to respond instantaneously to any threat. This army, of course, was also able to remain continually in service because of the tribute system and warehouses which provided food for the soldiers all year round.
Inca history states that in the early 15th century the neighboring kingdom of Chancas marshaled an army in order to conquer the fertile Inca land. The Incas lost the battle but due to Cusi Yupanqui, the Emperor’s son, they managed to take back the lost land. He became the first Inca to accumulate land from the surrounding ethnic groups.
The Inca army, which grew in size with the expansion of the empire, was mainly made up of armed foot soldiers practiced in the art of hand-to-hand combat. Their main weapon was the club which required two hands to operate but was capable of inflicting fatal head wounds. On the other hand, with the accumulation of the eastern jungle people, the bow and arrow became more common. This weapon could be used to kill enemy troops from a short distance.
Also, due to the large amount of manpower the Emperor was able to draw from, the Incas built and maintained extensive roads, some reaching up to 30,000–40,000 km long. These roads were only second in size to those of the Roman empire during pre-industrial civilizations. The labor needed was mainly provided by stone masons who did not need to use mortar, instead freestanding walls where built to control the flow of soldiers. These road systems allowed the army to move swiftly to all sides of the Empire.
For further reading see ‘Everyday life of the Incas’ by A. Kendall.
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About the Author
Charlotte Gardner, a guest blog writer, is currently studying archaeology at the Australian National University. In her spare time she likes to read and write about eccentric historical moments. Her love of old buildings and older stories was sparked when she visited Italy. One of Charlotte’s greatest wishes is that in a few thousand years her skeleton will be dug up by an archaeological investigation team and put on display in a national museum. You may contact Charlotte via email at: charlotteg86@gmail.com.
The Inca empire reached its peak in the 1500s, after emerging in under a century. From 1470 they ruled from their capital Cuzco, a vast area that reached the practicable limits of its expansion with the Amazonian rainforest to the east and the Andes to the south.
At the head of the organization was the royal family ruled by the Emperor, or Child of the Sun. The Incas believed that their royal family were direct descents from the Sun god through their ancestor Manco Capac, and therefore they ruled with divine right. Each member of the royal family was known by their title, used solely by the Inca royal family. These included Auqui for an unmarried son of the Emperor and Inca for a married son. It was necessary to make this strict legal hierarchical system to define the next heir to the throne; the Emperor’s wives could number into the hundreds and illegitimate sons by his concubines were not eligible for the succession.
Administration of the empire revolved around the taxpayers, or ‘commoners’. This social group made up the majority of the Inca population and were mainly agriculturalists. These subjects were expected to pay their taxes as energy or labour. The tight social categories were rigorously enforced because they dictated who was liable to pay tribute.
On the other hand, the agriculturists retained enough land to feed themselves but were close to government and the religious owned land to work on also. When it was sowing or harvesting time all other tasks, but urgent government business such as warfare, were postponed so the taxpayers could focus on the land.
Following Pizarro’s conquest of Peru in 1532, the Spanish chronicles of the era detailed many of the practices and rites of the subjugated Incan empire. Of these, perhaps the most shocking to the invading conquistadors was the Incan’s ”capacocha” ceremony: child sacrifice.
From there, the ceremonial procession would carry their sacrifice a mountaintop of a priest’s choosing. The sedated children, after being pinned under a pile of stones with the rest of the day’s offerings, were then left to die of exposure. Jesuit missionary, Bernabe Cobo, speculated in 1652 that not all of the sacrifices were always interred alive, but were instead dealt a coup de grace prior to burial.
