On an individual level, it was important to maintain a positive relationship with the gods to ensure the nature of all forces acting on the environment remained profitable. This was especially important considering the high necessity of successful food crops which everyone depended on for survival. The Sun god, which traditionally headed the deities, was studied by astronomer who constructed a twelve month calendar which was linked around the agricultural practice. The Scared Valley contained two streams which were believed to be the center of the universe. The Inca population developed a canal system, straightened and walled in these water ways as a way of showing their devotion. Many people believed the waters to have a healing affect and they were therefore used not only to bath in but also for ceremonies and accompaniments to sacrifices.

The most important celebration, during which a sacrifice of up to 200 human children were offered to the gods, was during the coronation of a new Emperor. This asserted his power over the people and his connection to the gods straight off, leaving no one in doubt of his divine right to rule. The sacrificial victims were usually about the age of ten and were taken from their families as part of the provinces’ taxation.

Conclusion
The Inca empire was made up of a strict social organisation, laws and punishments, and religious and community commitments. With the common connection that religion provided, the empire remained centralized even with their expansion into other territories of different ethnic backgrounds. By allowing the nobility of the conquered lands to continue with their administration duties, the Incas were able to integrate new people into its system more smoothly and effectively. The Inca empire clearly reflected a dominate social structure that was flexible and for the elites, especially rewarding.

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About the Author
Charlotte Gardner, a guest blog writer, is currently studying archaeology at the Australian National University. In her spare time she likes to read and write about eccentric historical moments. Her love of old buildings and older stories was sparked when she visited Italy. One of Charlotte’s greatest wishes is that in a few thousand years her skeleton will be dug up by an archaeological investigation team and put on display in a national museum. You may contact Charlotte via email at: charlotteg86@gmail.com.

As Islamic Arabs of the day did not regard the ancient Egyptians as ancestors, the practice was widely accepted and so-called mummy powder was in sold in a variety of strengths. Powder procured from the crudely preserved bodies peasant folk buried in sand pits was said to be only good for relieving minor stomach aches, while the meticulously embalmed and bitumen-rich bodies of the Egyptian aristocracy were a highly valued commodity and supposedly capable of healing life-threatening wounds.

Mummy powder proved so profitable that soon after its introduction, Egyptian tombs were ransacked not only for the riches they might contain, but also for bodies that might be processed into the expensive folk medicine. It wasn’t long before the practice of applying mummy powder was incorporated into medieval Europe’s catalog of dubious medical practices. By the 16th century, the product had become so commonplace in both Europe and the Middle East that the once seemingly endless supply of authentic, mummified Egyptian cadavers quite literally dried up.

In order to keep their niche market going, some mummy powder salesmen began to stealthily acquire the bodies of executed criminals and the unburied poor, which they would then hastily dry out and grind into “authentic” doses of the anthropophagic cure-all.

Mummy powder, however, was not the only everyday use of the Egyptian dead that arose before the dawn of modern archaeological preservation. In the 16th and 17th centuries, pulverized mummy was the key ingredient in a popular shade of brown artist’s pigment, and preserved human and animal remains of Egyptian origin were used in the production of this “mummy brown” paint until the early 20th century.

As the first railroads were constructed in North Africa during the 19th century, mummies with a high content of petroleum-based bitumen were also supposedly sometimes substituted for coal in engines of the then-new locomotives. Mark Twain claimed to witnessed the practice firsthand in his 1869 travelogue, The Innocents Abroad, writing, “[The] fuel they use…is composed of mummies three thousand years old, purchased by the ton or by the graveyard for that purpose.”

Whether this statement was merely jest on the part of the American literary icon, well known for his sense of humor, has been the subject of debate ever since it was published. What is known, however, is that the supply of authentic Egyptian corpses by the beginning of the 1800s was so small only that upper crust Europeans could afford to purchase one whole. In the wake of Napoleon’s conquest of Egypt, it became vogue amongst the aristocracy to hold “unwrapping parties,” where carefully preserved corpses would be haphazardly stripped of their bandages, so that revelers could gaze upon the millennia-old face concealed beneath them. Small burial ornaments concealed in the linens would then be dispensed to partygoers as souvenirs, while exposure to air caused the delicate bodies to crumble into dust, never to be seen again.

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Born in Ohio on August 13, 1860, Annie’s given name was Phoebe Ann Oakley Mozee. She had a total of seven siblings and came from a childhood of economic hardship and parental death. She never received any sort of a formal education. When her mother lost her second husband, Annie was put into care for a while but suffered abuse and was returned to her mother who married for a third time. Oakley’s childhood made her tough and resilient and perhaps a bit of a loner.

Oakley was an expert marksman from a very early age and started practicing her shooting skills at the tender age of 9. At the age of 16, she was already receiving money for her shooting games and entered her first professional competition against her husband to be Frank Butler (1850-1926). They married in 1876.

In the early 1880s, Oakley traveled with her husband on the Vaudeville circuit, performing shooting feats and contests for a paying audience. They went across the country together where Oakley got to meet many famous people of the day, including Sitting Bull who she became friends with. Sitting Bull gave Annie Oakley the nickname of “Little Sure Shot.” Her skills as a marksmen were never questioned by man or woman, rich or poor, townsfolk or royal. Her place in history was quickly secured.

It was in 1885 that the star crossed (or rifle crossed) couple joined the famous Buffalo Bill Wild West Show. Butler stepped aside so that his wife could become the female star of the Wild West show. They traveled all over Europe and even performed for Queen Victoria. Oakley won numerous medals and awards for her skills. They stayed with the show for 16 years. Even in her own time, Oakley was considered a role model for other women from both the States and the rest of the world.

Despite offering to lead a female regimen in World War I, Oakley ended up spending her time with the Red Cross during the war and spending time for her famous show dog, Dave. A comeback was planned for the early 1920s but a car accident put both Butlers out of commission for some time.

Oakley and Butler stayed together until the very end passing away within three weeks of each other in November of 1926. Their story is truly endearing and inspirational and Annie Oakley will forever be remembered as America’s cowgirl. Her role in the perception of women and creating the wild stories of the American west will endure long after the last remnants of western boomtowns crumble and disappear.

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While the Inca capital city itself, Cuzco, was not surrounded by walls or fortified defenses there were fortresses built near the city which offered a number of advantages. The first advantage was the defense the fortresses gave the city people against any attackers.

These fortresses were designed to shelter the taxpayers and other nobles and provide food to the people for considerable amounts of time when all supply lines were broken. This was achievable because the majority of food warehouses were situated outside towns but within defending reach of the fortresses, There could be up to 500 warehouses in rows along hillsides containing food, clothes, and army stores such as weapons and tools. An example of this system was discovered outside the provincial town of Huanuco.

Many of these warehouses were only accessible via a window which could be reached by constructing stones steps leading up the wall. The second purpose of the fortresses was to control and dominate their conquered subjects. The provincial town of Paramongo was naturally defended by its topographical position but still a fortress was constructed. Other results included a store of raw material for the manufacture of public goods, supplies to relieve famine stricken or areas of crop failure and a means of providing luxury items for the ruling classes.

While the cities themselves were not surrounded by a wall, the royal palaces and Sun god converts were well protected in their own right. The main entrance into the Emperor’s palace considered of two doorways, the first guarded by 2000 soldiers and the second was protected by 100 captains. Many of the homes of the nobility’s were guarded in much the same way, while the converts were guarded by high walls and a single entrance.

The all important expansion of the Inca empire was based around their standing armies, forced tributary status and their extensive communication systems. While the majority of taxpayers were agriculturalists, the sheer number of male workers to draw upon enabled the Incas to maintain a standing army, so the empire was ready to respond instantaneously to any threat. This army, of course, was also able to remain continually in service because of the tribute system and warehouses which provided food for the soldiers all year round.

Inca history states that in the early 15th century the neighboring kingdom of Chancas marshaled an army in order to conquer the fertile Inca land. The Incas lost the battle but due to Cusi Yupanqui, the Emperor’s son, they managed to take back the lost land. He became the first Inca to accumulate land from the surrounding ethnic groups.

The Inca army, which grew in size with the expansion of the empire, was mainly made up of armed foot soldiers practiced in the art of hand-to-hand combat. Their main weapon was the club which required two hands to operate but was capable of inflicting fatal head wounds. On the other hand, with the accumulation of the eastern jungle people, the bow and arrow became more common. This weapon could be used to kill enemy troops from a short distance.

Also, due to the large amount of manpower the Emperor was able to draw from, the Incas built and maintained extensive roads, some reaching up to 30,000–40,000 km long. These roads were only second in size to those of the Roman empire during pre-industrial civilizations. The labor needed was mainly provided by stone masons who did not need to use mortar, instead freestanding walls where built to control the flow of soldiers. These road systems allowed the army to move swiftly to all sides of the Empire.

For further reading see ‘Everyday life of the Incas’ by A. Kendall.

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About the Author
Charlotte Gardner, a guest blog writer, is currently studying archaeology at the Australian National University. In her spare time she likes to read and write about eccentric historical moments. Her love of old buildings and older stories was sparked when she visited Italy. One of Charlotte’s greatest wishes is that in a few thousand years her skeleton will be dug up by an archaeological investigation team and put on display in a national museum. You may contact Charlotte via email at: charlotteg86@gmail.com.

The empire was highly organized, divided into geographical, social and hierarchical groups. The empire, Taluantinsuys (Land of the Four Quarters), was divided into four provinces, or suyu, called Chinchaysuyu, Antisuyu, Cuntisuyu and Collasuyu. These quarters were then further divided into smaller provinces whose boundaries often reflected the pre-Inca divisions. This was especially so with the Empire’s rapid expansion and integration of other cultures.

At the head of the organization was the royal family ruled by the Emperor, or Child of the Sun. The Incas believed that their royal family were direct descents from the Sun god through their ancestor Manco Capac, and therefore they ruled with divine right. Each member of the royal family was known by their title, used solely by the Inca royal family. These included Auqui for an unmarried son of the Emperor and Inca for a married son. It was necessary to make this strict legal hierarchical system to define the next heir to the throne; the Emperor’s wives could number into the hundreds and illegitimate sons by his concubines were not eligible for the succession.

Anyone who wanted an audience with the Emperor had to take off his sandals and carry a “token burden” on his back, both signs of respect. The organization of the empire was so strict that everyone knew their position in the society. Under the royal family were the nobles of royal blood or nobles by Inca privilege; both groups belonged to the elite and helped govern the provinces. To help with decisions the Emperor would discuss matters with his advisers, a group of men made up of royal relatives or men who held important social positions in their native lands.

Administration of the empire revolved around the taxpayers, or ‘commoners’. This social group made up the majority of the Inca population and were mainly agriculturalists. These subjects were expected to pay their taxes as energy or labour. The tight social categories were rigorously enforced because they dictated who was liable to pay tribute.

Each province was expected to provide agreed upon amounts of tribute to the Inca government warehouses made up of the supplied energy of every agriculturalist in that area. In return the government was supposed to adjust its demands depending on the seasonal capacity of the provinces. In addition, male individuals who possessed a particular skill were exempt from contributing to the province tribute and instead was required to complete local works. These could include repairing bridges, building roads, or serving time in the army, the public work force or the mines. In this way, it was more common for towns to be build around specialist’s skills which relied on supplies from other specialists skills, for example, a bridge builder living in a town with a carpenter.

On the other hand, the agriculturists retained enough land to feed themselves but were close to government and the religious owned land to work on also. When it was sowing or harvesting time all other tasks, but urgent government business such as warfare, were postponed so the taxpayers could focus on the land.

First the lands of the Religion were worked, the community land, or Emperor’s; and, and then the taxpayers personal land. The Emperor would start the work using a golden hand plough. He would, of course, stop working after the initial ceremonial beginning, leaving the land to be worked on by the taxpayers. Each man supervised the work of his family on his appointed land plot and the first who finished his part was considered a rich man. After the harvest, the produce from the Emperor’s land was then transported and stored in warehouses for future redistribution.

For further reading see ‘Everyday life of the Incas’ by A. Kendall

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History Collectors: We offer a wide selection of museum quality replicas and authentic items representing nearly every century of the Common Era and the most significant civilizations of ancient history. Once you browse through our online catalogue, we are certain you’ll find the perfect gift for yourself or a loved one with an interest in history.

About the Author
Charlotte Gardner, a guest blog writer, is currently studying archaeology at the Australian National University. In her spare time she likes to read and write about eccentric historical moments. Her love of old buildings and older stories was sparked when she visited Italy. One of Charlotte’s greatest wishes is that in a few thousand years her skeleton will be dug up by an archaeological investigation team and put on display in a national museum. You may contact Charlotte via email at: charlotteg86@gmail.com.