Two particularly interesting periods in Greek history were the Archaic (between 750 B.C. and 500 B.C.) and the Classical periods (between about 500 B.C. and 336 B.C.), which comprise most of the era termed ‘Ancient Greece’ in the time line of western history. These periods of Greek history are notable because of the achievements in art, architecture, literature, and the socio-political developments that made Greek civilization unique. Prior to and during the Archaic period, formerly isolated Greek tribes began solidifying into more organized centers of government and population, forming what would become city-states, or ‘polis’, with their own authority but with strategic alliances defined among them.
Early in their evolution the city-states were frequently ruled by hereditary monarchies, called basileus, which then ceded to the oligarchic form of government, which was most typically a leadership of the wealthiest citizens. In oligarchies, political power was given to a council and only a select number of participants were designated by the constitution. If this form of government was overthrown, it was usually replaced by a tyranny, a form of usurping government through which wealthy leaders seized power unconstitutionally, although often with popular support. By the 6th century B.C., democracy as a form of government increased in popularity, though it remained rule by the few-only the free, male citizens of a state could vote to the exclusion of women, foreigners, and slaves.
After the power of Sparta was nearly extinguished by revolting Messeneans during the Messenean War, Sparta reformed its government implementing an authoritarian, military rule over its territory. Its strict militaristic government secured the rule of native Spartans while subjugating their conquests by a system of serfdom, where the subjects, called helots, would be essentially bound to a landowner’s property and forced to work the land in order to provide for themselves and their patrons. The military tradition of the Spartan, crucial to the strength of their government, was also remarkable. Spartans were very careful in creating a strong and able citizenry, which fueled the military. It was government policy to filter the weak elements from the society-a government body would be in charge of effectively deciding whether a child should live or die according to the physical strength it demonstrated at birth. Females were also affected by these policies and, though not raised to be part of the military, were raised to be physically fit, fairly independent members of society and strong representatives of their family units while their husbands and fathers were away on military duty.
Artaphernes selected the Plains of Marathon, twenty-two miles to the northeast of Athens, as the place of his final landing. His forces, by the lowest estimate, consisted of one hundred and fifty thousand men, of which ten thousand were cavalry. To these were opposed the army of Athens and its allies, consisting in all of ten thousand men. The battle-ground forms an irregular crescent, six miles long and two broad in its widest part. It is bounded on one side by the sea, and on the other by a rampart of mountains. At the time of the battle the extremities of the plain were flanked by swamps, diminishing the extent of the front, and hampering the operations of the larger army. The command of the Greek army had been intrusted to ten generals, who ruled successively one day each. Themistocles, one of these generals, resigned his day in favor of Miltiades, and all the others followed his example. And so the battle was set, ten thousand
Greeks, under Miltiades, against the overwhelming hosts of the enemy.
The Persians, confident in their numbers, erected no intrenchments. They did not dream of an attack from the little band of Greeks. There is evidence to believe that they were dissatisfied with the nature of the battle-field they had chosen, and were upon the point of embarking to land at some point nearer the city. If this was the case, they were very rudely awakened from their dream of security by the movement of the Greeks.
On the morning of the tenth day after leaving Athens, Miltiades drew up his army in order of battle. He was obliged to perilously weaken his center in order to confront the whole of the Persian army, so as to avoid the danger of being outflanked and surrounded. The Greeks began the battle by a furious attack along the whole line, endeavoring to close in a hand-to-hand conflict as soon as possible, so as to avoid the deadly arrows of the Persians, and to take the advantage of their heavier arms. The Persians were greatly astonished when they saw this little band rushing against them with such a headlong dash, and thought that the Greeks must have been seized with madness. The Persian general had concentrated his forces at the center, and at this part of the battle-field the fiery onset of Greeks was checked by mere weight of numbers. But at length the mighty Persian force moved irresistibly forward, forcing the Greeks slowly backward, fighting, dying, but never yielding. Soon the Greek army were cut in two, and the Persians marched proudly onward to assured victory.
But the battle was not yet over. The genius of Miltiades had anticipated this result. The wings of the Greek army, strengthened at the expense of the center, fell upon the weakened wings of the Persians with irresistable onset. The invaders were forced back step by step, the retreat soon changing into a wild and promiscuous rout, and two thirds of the Persian army ceased to exist as a fighting force. The victorious Greeks now turned their attention to the Persian
center, falling upon its flanks with incredible fury. Surrounded on all sides, for a time the Persians maintained their old reputation as valiant soldiers, but nothing could withstand the impetuosity of the Greeks, and soon the whole of the invading hosts were in tumultuous
retreat.
The victorious Greeks pressed rapidly forward to prevent the foe from embarking, and, if possible, to capture some of the ships. But the Persian archers held the victors in check until the flying soldiery were embarked, and the Greeks obtained possession of only seven vessels. But they were left in undisputed possession of the field of battle, the camp of the enemy, and an immense amount of treasure which had been abandoned in the precipitate flight. Six thousand four hundred Persian dead remained on the plain, while the Greek loss was one hundred and ninety-two.
|
All Athens hastened to welcome the brave soldiery. A Spartan force, on its way to join the Athenians, arrived too late to take part in the battle, and they quietly returned home. As the news spread, loud and frantic rejoicings were heard throughout Greece, and the name of Persia, so long a dread and a menace, lost much of its terrors.
But the battle of Marathon, and the victory of Miltiades, had a wider significance than could enter into the imaginations of |
|
|||||||||
| then living man. It was a conflict between the barbarism of Asia and the dawning civilization of Europe, between Oriental despotism and human liberty. The victory rendered normal human growth possible, and, to use the expressive phrase of the modern poet: | ||||||||||
“Henceforth to the sunset, unchecked on its way,
Shall liberty follow the march of the day.”
It was not for the Greeks alone, but for all ages and all peoples; and in this Western World, when we celebrate the birth of our own country, we should ever keep in mind the desperate struggle at Marathon, and the valor of Miltiades and his Greek soldiery.
Previous Article in Series:
The Greco-Persian Wars Part I: The Persian Empire
Next Article in Series:
The Greco-Persian Wars Part III: The Battle of Thermopylae
The Greco-Persian Wars Part IV: Battle of Salamis
The Greco-Persian Wars Part V: Battle of Plataea
Source: Ten Great Events in History, James Johonnot, 1887.
Tags: 490 B.C., Ancient Greece Store, Ancient Greek Army, Ancient Greek Battle, Ancient Greek Bronze Cuirass, Ancient Greek History, Ancient Greek Hoplite Helm, Ancient Greek Store, Ancient History, Ancient Persian History, Ancient Sparta, Artaphernes, Battle of Marathon, Corinthian Helmet, Darius The Great of Persia, Greco-Persian Wars, Greek City States, King of Persia, Miltiades, Miltiades the Younger, Persian Empire, Persian invasion of Greece, Siege of Troy, The Persians, the Thespians, Themistocles, Thespian Full Size Helmet 480 B.C.
The great events in history are those where, upon special occasions, a man or a people have made a stand against tyranny, and have preserved or advanced freedom for the people. Sometimes tyranny has taken the form of the oppression of the many by the few in the same nation, and sometimes it has been the oppression of a weak nation by a stronger one. The successful revolt against tyranny, the terrible conflict resulting in the emancipation of a people, has always been the favorite theme of the historian, marking as it does a step in the progress of mankind from a savage to a civilized state.
At a period before authentic history begins, it is probable that roving tribes of shepherds from the north took possession of the hills and valleys of Greece. Shut off on the north by mountain ranges, and on all other sides surrounded by the sea, these tribes were able to maintain a sturdy independence for many hundred years. The numerous harbors and bays which subdivide Greece invited to a maritime life, and at a very early time, the descendants of the original shepherds became skillful navigators and courageous adventurers.
Thence improvements went forward with rapid strides. Hints received from Egypt were reproduced in higher forms. Massive temples became light and airy, rude sculpture became beautiful by conforming to natural forms, and hieroglyphics developed into the letters which Cadmus invented or improved. Schools were established, athletic sports were encouraged, aesthetic taste was developed, until in the arts, in philosophy, in science, and in literature the Greeks took the lead of all peoples.
In Western Society, we have grown accustomed to democratic government models managed by common citizens and have bought into the premise that the power of the collective good governs wisely. To understand the western democratic model of today, it helps to examine how the Greek City States, and notably the Ancient Athenians first devised the notion of a democratic government in their time. The Ancient Greek Philosopher Plato first defined Democracy as a system of “rule by the governed”. The origins of democracy first developed in the form of an Assembly which entitled all Athenian citizens to attend and participate. The Reform of Solon in 594 BC permitted the Assembly to either approve or reject legislation introduced by the Council. But it was not until after 508 BC, that the Council was chosen in a democratic fashion.
Real power, however still remained with the Athenian nobility, who excercised their control in the Assembly through their council, known as the ‘Aeropagus’. Through this council, the nobles elected the Archons who would govern the city. By 488 BC, the Archons were also chosen in a democratic fashion, thereby eliminating a source of power from the nobility. Magistrates were elected by freemen, jurors in trials were paid fees. Though, Athenian democracy did not bring equality, it did provide for the right of all citizens to be involved in governing their city in some form. 
In 1788 with the signing of the United States Constitution, the founding fathers shared a commitment to the principle of natural freedom and equality and provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties. Nevertheless, the United States Constitution only guaranteed these liberties and a vote for the adult white male property owners. During the French Revolution in 1789, the revolutionary government adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which resulted in a short-lived National Convention elected by all males.
