But the war was not yet over. A single defeat did not extinguish the hopes of the Persian monarch, nor exhaust the resources of his empire. Herodotus says: “Now Darius was very bitter against the Athenians, and when he heard the tale of the battle of Marathon he was much more wroth, and desired much more eagerly to march against Hellas. Straightway he sent heralds to all the cities, and bade them make ready an army, and to furnish much more than they had done before, both ships, and horses, and corn; and while the heralds were going round, all Asia was shaken for three years; but in the fourth year the Egyptians, who had been made slaves by Cambyses, rebelled against the Persians, and then the king sought only the more vehemently to go both against the Egyptians and against the Greeks. So he named Xerxes, his son, to be king over the Persians after himself, and made ready to march. But in the year after the revolt of Egypt, Darius himself died; nor was he suffered to punish the Athenians or the Egyptians who had rebelled against him.”
In the mean time the Greeks were preparing for the onset. Sparta, true to her military organization, did little but to bring her army to the perfection of discipline, and many of the weaker cities resolved to quietly submit to the invaders. The Athenians alone seemed to have fully understood the gravity of the situation. To them the rage of the Persian king was particularly directed, for the crushing defeat at Marathon, and Athens was more exposed than any other of the Greek cities. During the ten years Athens raised and equipped as large an army as her population would warrant. Every able-bodied man was enrolled in the ranks. Food and military stores were collected, but the chief means of defense was a novel one, and showed the desperate nature of the conflict in which they were about to engage. Under the wise direction of Themistocles they built a formidable fleet, so large that in case of emergency the whole population of the city could embark, and either remain afloat or take refuge on the neighboring islands.
A congress of the cities had determined to oppose the approach of Xerxes at some favorable place by a combined army. At the head of the Maliac gulf there was a narrow pass, through which the Persians had to go, the road running between a mountain and a swamp which stretched to the sea; and at one place the swamp came so near the mountain that there was hardly room for the road to run between. This is the famous pass of Thermopylæ; and here it was that a small army might block the way against any number of the enemy. Across this pass a wall was built, and behind it was posted the Greek army under the command of Leonidas, the Spartan king. His forces consisted of three hundred Spartans, seven hundred Thespians, and about four thousand more from the various Grecian cities. The Persians approached, and for four days waited, expecting to see the Greek army disperse at the very sight of their formidable numbers. But as they were apparently not frightened, on the fifth day the Persians made an attack. For two days the battle continued, inflicting great losses upon the Persians, while the little army of Leonidas, behind their fortifications, was scarcely injured.
In Western Society, we have grown accustomed to democratic government models managed by common citizens and have bought into the premise that the power of the collective good governs wisely. To understand the western democratic model of today, it helps to examine how the Greek City States, and notably the Ancient Athenians first devised the notion of a democratic government in their time. The Ancient Greek Philosopher Plato first defined Democracy as a system of “rule by the governed”. The origins of democracy first developed in the form of an Assembly which entitled all Athenian citizens to attend and participate. The Reform of Solon in 594 BC permitted the Assembly to either approve or reject legislation introduced by the Council. But it was not until after 508 BC, that the Council was chosen in a democratic fashion.
Real power, however still remained with the Athenian nobility, who excercised their control in the Assembly through their council, known as the ‘Aeropagus’. Through this council, the nobles elected the Archons who would govern the city. By 488 BC, the Archons were also chosen in a democratic fashion, thereby eliminating a source of power from the nobility. Magistrates were elected by freemen, jurors in trials were paid fees. Though, Athenian democracy did not bring equality, it did provide for the right of all citizens to be involved in governing their city in some form.
Since 508 BC, examples of democratic rule and governance can be found in the societies of the ancient Phoenicians, and the ancient Sumerian City States. It is interesting to note that even though the Roman Republic contributed significantly into certain aspects of democracy, such as Laws, Rome itself never became a true democracy. During the Middle Ages, only a minority of the populations of the societies of the time exercised some form of democratic rule. These limited forms of democracy are illustrated in certain medieval Italian city states, such as Venice and the Veche in Novgorod and Pskov Republics of medieval Russia. With the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 AD, which restricted the power of English kings, a new form of limited democratic rule was established and was an important milestone in the development of English parliamentary rule with De Montfort’s first elected parliament in England in 1265. However only a small minority of the population actually had a voice.
In 1788 with the signing of the United States Constitution, the founding fathers shared a commitment to the principle of natural freedom and equality and provided for an elected government and protected civil rights and liberties. Nevertheless, the United States Constitution only guaranteed these liberties and a vote for the adult white male property owners. During the French Revolution in 1789, the revolutionary government adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which resulted in a short-lived National Convention elected by all males.
| The political upheaval resulting from wars, revolutions, decolonization, and religious and economic turmoil of the late 19th and 20th Centuries has transformed the political landscape throughout the world, prompting many countries to adopt some form of democracy. During this time the democratic form of government in western societies has matured to include many demographic groups once disenfranchised by society including women and minorities, while other more nascent forms of democracy still struggle to represent these important demographic sectors. And so, as the United |
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| States reaches an important milestone with its election of Barack Obama as its first African American President, we can only hope that this event will signal a new dawn for democracy and serve as an important example to other nations still struggling to establish a government for the people, by the people. | ||||||||||
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