There are few dates in recent human history that cause more of an emotional stir in historians than that of September 1, 1939. On this day, Adolph Hitler, then chancellor of Germany declared to his parliament (Reichstag) that enough was enough that Danzig in Poland was a German city full of German people and should be taken back. The culmination of the Nazi ideology of “Lebensraum,” in which all lands currently or formerly belonging to Germany should be returned to Germany and inhabited by German people, would soon signal the death of millions of Jews, Russians, homosexuals, gypsies, agitators, allies and non combatants.

The fact that it is the date that signals the beginning of World War II and the dramatic reformatting of the European landscape and culture is a matter of hindsight. In 1939, Hitler invaded Poland. It would have been difficult to imagine then the true scope of that decision.

It all began with the Treaty of Versailles. The document signed in 1919 in a rail car in France where the then German leaders were forced to admit their wrong doing in World War I and accept a significant loss of formerly German land.

Adolph Hitler fought in World War I and like many Germans felt that the treaty of Versailles was a slap in the face to the German nation making them wholly responsible for a war that involved many nations that came into conflict because of the multitudinous pacts that punctuated European politics.

Whether the Germans were simply assisting their allies or whether they were the instigators of the Great War, in which 20,000 a day killed at the Battle of the Somme, is a matter of opinion. Hitler attempted many times to instill a sense of injustice in the German people because of the humiliation of Versailles. His work of propaganda and surreptitious influence came to an end during the speech he made on September 1, 1939.

“Poland has directed its attacks against the Free City of Danzig. Moreover, Poland was not prepared to settle the Corridor question in a reasonable way which would be equitable to both parties, and she did not think of keeping her obligations to minorities. I must here state something definitely; German has kept these obligations; the minorities who live in Germany are not persecuted. No Frenchman can stand up and say that any Frenchman living in the Saar territory is oppressed, tortured, or deprived of his rights. Nobody can say this.” - Adolf Hitler

German troops marched into Danzig to reclaim the city and the Danzig Corridor on September 1 by force. It was not the first act by Germany in regards to nullifying the Versailles Treaty but it would become the most significant. The invasion of Poland was a direct result with Hitler’s Non Aggression Pact with Russia and the secret plan for the two nations to invade Poland and divide her up between the to powers. Because of a pact Britain and France had with Poland, they were forced to declare war on Germany on September 3 and just like the First World War, nation after nation followed suit until the disastrous global conflict was played out once again, only this time religion and ethnic persecution would play a large and deadly role.

All in all the Second World War took the lives of an estimated 22 million people. We see its legacy in the faces of aging veterans, in the gray wash memorial in town parks across the world and in the uncomfortable relationships of several nations. The significance of World War II will never be fully known in our lifetime, only becoming clear as the long line of modern history reaches its inescapable conclusions. What we do know now however is that the actions of one individual, good or bad, can change the world forever.

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In 1838, William Lovette of London, England wrote was to become known as the “People’s Charter” advocating rights for all British men and fairness in elections and public office. What began as a letter writing campaign became a socialist movement across the nation, culminating in the riots of July 1839.

In 1832, an Electoral Reform Act was passed in England that left a number of antiquated political and government systems in place and made it almost impossible for a regular Joe to hold elected office in England. The Chartist reforms included the ability for those without land to hold office, the institution of general nationwide elections, a salary for politicians, equally divided electoral districts as well as suffrage for all men, everywhere.

The movement attracted upper class social reformers and blue collar workers alike. It was a rebellion against the status quo and the pervading elitism in England’s highest offices. Charterism was a rallying cry for change and a step towards a modern democratic state. The first official convention in February of 1839 showed that there were two main camps of thought: peaceable change and violent change.

“Peaceably if we may, forcibly if we must.”

From the first meeting, the Chartists tested the boundaries of the law having 53 men gather in one place when the rule was no more than 50. What may seem a small thing these days was an offense against order in conservative England of 1839. Add to that the opposition to the current government and the printing of unofficial untaxed newspapers and revolution stirred heavy in the English air. The many faces of the movement left London to spread their message in the industrial north, gathering a veritable army of workers.

In fact, many people who were desperate for social change saw the Charter movement as a vehicle for a radical transformation in the way England was governed. There was talk that the ironworkers were making weapons that an army should be gathered and tyrannical politicians should be killed. The call for a general strike found more favor but not enough for a clear vote. The movement sent requests, demands and proposals to parliament but their pleas fell mostly on deaf ears and people began to vent their frustrations.

It was the 4^th of July when the report of several Chartist meetings in Birmingham reached the metropolitan police. At the time, the industrial northern city of Birmingham had no police force of their own and worry had spread that the nightly meetings at an area of town known as the Bull Ring were a plot to revolt against the government. The first “riot” resulted in a clash between a few chartists and the police and the injury and arrest of a few individuals. At the end of July chartists revolted en masse and thousands marched to the Bull Ring, burned down buildings and clashed violently with police.

The result of the summer clashes was the arrest and imprisonment of several of the movement’s leaders as well as the end of the violent side of English social reform.

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In the end, all of the demands of the Charter movement came to pass, except annual general elections. Universal male suffrage didn’t come about in England until the end of World War I. The Charter movement is a part of England’s rich past often overlooked. Its social significance lies in a legacy of working men’s clubs, civic associations, unions, worker’s rights and drastic change to outdated forms of government. The Chartists demonstrated just want community activism and the desire for democracy can achieve.

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By May of 1937, planes, trains and automobiles were an integral part of modern life. Transatlantic communication was well on its way to becoming the global streamlined system it is today. People crossed the world’s oceans quite regularly. There were a few misadventures along the way, the worst of which would take the lives of 35 people in a matter of seconds. The Hindenburg disaster remains one of the most shocking and spellbinding pieces of film footage in media history.

1930s Germany was a prosperous time and place for many. The Nazis held tight control of every aspect of society, creating a false utopia of strong employment, increased civic engagement and cultural exploration. The desire to show all that Germany had to offer after the humiliating defeat of the Great War was a must for Hitler and his followers. None could have anticipated the violent and horrifying events that would overtake the country in just a few short years. In 1937, times were good and innovation frequent.

The invention of an international air bus was the result of the efforts of the Zeppelin Company who would soon be famous for their aircraft carriers. The Hindenburg was the second of two enormous airships manufactured by the company, both giants of lightweight metal and gas cells. The air bus or air ship was constructed in Fredrichshafen, Germany and measured over 135 feet. Taking five years to build, the aircraft was the first transportation to cross the Atlantic by air. There was no passenger basket below the airship; the Hindenburg was a contained structure.

The Hindenburg was named for the former president of the Weimar republic, Paul Von Hindenburg. Considered a national hero, President Hindenburg passed away in 1934, never knowing the grisly outcome of his namesake. It was Hindenburg who appointed Hitler to the position of chancellor; a position that would act as springboard towards his ambitions as fuehrer. Hindenburg is thus associated with two disasters: the rise of Hitler and the downfall of transatlantic airships.

Already in service for a year before disaster struck, the Hindenburg air bus has proved popular among the elite traveler that utilized its services. A library, lounge, cafeteria and promenade made the long slow flight (approximately 60 hours) from German to America’s East coast both pleasurable and relaxing. It would all come to a crashing shocking halt as the giant air bus with its four strong engines came into land at the small airport in Lakehurst, New Jersey on May 6th, 1937.

Having thwarted the efforts of an earlier thunderstorm, the Hindenburg was slowly making its way in to land. 200 hundred feet above ground, and just as the first tie line descended, an ominous orange glow became visible. The massive gas filled balloon was about to burst. There were 91 people on board. 33 lost their lives jumping to the ground to avoid the flames. Another two were ravaged by flames.

People on the ground looked on in horror at the sight of flames billowing out of the airship’s fragile structure while people jumped to the ground. Sixty seconds from the sound of the explosion, the Hindenburg was gone, nothing more than ashes and burnt framing. The event was broadcast live on the radio.

The radio broadcast that is most famed by the Hindenburg disaster (with the famously haunting “oh the humanity!” cry from eye witness journalist, Herbert Morrison) was actually the first national coast to coast broadcast in the country. What was meant to be a shining day for the developing media/movie industry became a thunderous marker of what happens when dreams are marred by fate.

After the tragedy of that spring day, the growing popularity with the air bus system rapidly dissipated. No-one wanted to fly in a planed apt to seemingly spontaneous explosion. Theories abound on the cause of the Hindenburg’s combustion, from lighting storms to sabotage, but firm evidence of cause was never found.

The Hindenburg disaster marked the beginning of the end of Germany’s good times, at least for a few years anyway. Two years later, Hitler would invade Poland and the war to end all wars would become a hollow sentiment from a battlefield that paused but never ended. The time after World War I in Europe was a mixed muddle of progress and setbacks as nations recovered from conflict, dep

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The Hindenburg disaster marked the beginning of the end of Germany’s good times, at least for a few years anyway. Two years later, Hitler would invade Poland and the war to end all wars would become a hollow sentiment from a battlefield that paused but never ended. The time after World War I in Europe was a mixed muddle of progress and setbacks as nations recovered from conflict, depression and political upheaval. The Hindenburg Disaster was just one of many incidents that marked the years between the wars.

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On April 21, 1955 the play “Inherit the Wind” debuted on Broadway. The acclaimed full length feature, “Inherit the Wind” premiered in New York City in 1960. Directed by Stanley Kramer, the Oscar nominated film explores the true story of a 1925 court case commonly referred to as the “monkey trial” or “scopes trial”. A look into the controversial matter of creationism versus Darwinism, the movie captured a moment in American history that still holds resonance today.

It was the Butler Act that in the Spring of 1925 made the teaching of evolution and the theories of Charles Darwin illegal in the state of Tennessee. In 1859, Darwin released his work “Origin of the Species” that explored the theme of evolution in accounting for the development of humanity and other animal species. Since its publication, Darwin’s work has been criticized the world over but in post World War I America, when the Jazz Age was at its height, the idea that men were monkeys seemed for many conservative Christians the last straw in a nation that was rapidly losing its Victorian values.

John T. Scopes was a substitute high school biology teacher working in the schools of Tennessee and allegedly teaching Darwinism as scientific fact. This was perfect for the newly formed American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) who had been looking for a way to fight the Butler Act since its inception. The idea was to create a nationally recognized trial that would bring the discussion of Creationism versus Darwinism into the national spotlight.

Scopes was 24 when he was arrested for teaching Darwin’s theory of evolution but his defense by the ACLU was already planned. Clarence Darrow, agnostic and friend of organized labor would be Scopes’ attorney. His verbal battle against Southern Christian William Jennings Bryan is the stuff of both legend and silver screen. The trial took place in a hot southern July at the packed Rhea County Courthouse in Dayton, Tennessee.

“Scopes isn’t on trial, civilization is on trial.”- Clarence Darrow

Both lawyers were up for the fight and used a veritable arsenal of legal and philosophical verbage to get their points across. Where Darrow waxed eloquent on the Butler Act as a throwback to medieval sentiment, Bryan quoted the King James bible and attempted to show that Darwin’s theory was just that, nothing more than an absurd unproven theory.

“If evolution wins, Christianity goes.”- William Jennings Bryan

Outside the courthouse the press recorded and distributed every word of the trial across the wire. Although the news reached the Europeans, they could not quite understand how embedded in American culture was the idea of fundamental Christian thought. But with Darwin being of British descent, the people of the United Kingdom paid attention to the trial as did many of Europe’s free thinkers and scientists.

The trial went from July 10th to the 21st and resulted not in an overturning of the Butler Act but in Scopes being fined a sum of $100 for violating the act. It would be another 42 years before the Act would be reversed by the Tennessee senate in 1967. The film of the trial is still shown in classrooms across America. And despite the lack of enthusiasm from modern students at having to sit through a movie filmed before the invention of color television, it provides a window into a world some may not understand. But as controversy still exists between devout

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Darwinians and conservative Christians the black and white masterpiece of cinematic excellence will remain a ‘must see’ for many years to come.

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